(M. R. Dwarakanath)
(This article is planned to be the 1st in a series of articles leading up to Vedanta.)
The word Sankhya is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ख्या to tell or to be named and the derivative root सङ्ख्या to count. Sankhya (साङ्ख्य – सम्यक् आख्याते) means well named or – what relates to numbers / enumeration. Notice the different placements of the long vowel in the two instances. The name for this philosophical system is derived from the enumeration of 25 different principles or तत्त्वs. This is an orthodox system which accepts the Vedas as veridical and it is attributed to Sage Kapila. There are no extant texts on Sankhya by Kapilamuni. The principal extant text for this system is Sankhya-karika of Ishwara-krishna which is of a more recent date – 4th century CE. It is perhaps the oldest of the 6 Philosophical systems of Sanatana Dharma. However the system is basically non-theistic. As a philosophy, it does not appear to include much religious dogma. It is a dualistic philosophy somewhat akin to Descartes’ dualism. In Descartes’ dualism, mental phenomena are not physical phenomena, thus setting up the main issue of how mind can arise from matter! Whereas Descartes was concerned about Mind and Matter as two distinct principles, both insentient; however Sankhya considers sentience and insentience as two eternal orthogonal principles (with no overlap) which are called Purusa (पुरुष) and Prakrti (प्रकृति). Understanding this system along with the other Philosophical systems helps one to understand Vedanta in proper context and more clearly. The evolution of thought becomes more apparent.
The centuries before the present era were a period of great intellectual ferment in India which spawned many religions (Buddhism, Jainism, etc.) and philosophies. The two disciplines of religion and philosophy seem to have coexisted seamlessly; both together and apart from each other. Sankhya appears to be more a theory of evolution and understanding the universe rather than a quest for understanding transcendental Brahman. It also appears to fit much closer to the definition of Philosophy which is a path to knowledge and understanding from arguments and reasoning. The religious aspect of this system appears tangentially when dealing with the causes and cessation of suffering. This system accepts the concept of Karma and transmigration.
Purusa (पुरुष): Purusas are many (infinite in number) and they are real, eternal, uncaused, inactive and unchanging. It is pure sentience, the consciousness principle, the perceiver (Saksi) and the Subject. It is has no parts, is omnipresent and it is a witness to Prakrti’s manifestations. Although independent of Prakrti, it can get bewitched by Prakrti, whence is confused by Prakrti’s Gunas and starts to behave like nature. This is the cause of Purusa’s bondage and grief. Purusa cannot be cognized directly. It has to be inferred as the enjoyer of the show Prakrti puts on. It is the soul that distinguishes sentience from all insentient matter; yet Purusa is inactive and Prakrti is alive! Purusas are many and they are distinct, yet it carries no Guna to distinguish one from another. The concept of Purusa in Sankhya seems enigmatic.
Prakrti (प्रकृति): is also real, eternal, infinite and uncaused like Purusa. This is insentient, unconscious matter but is alive; it is not Jada. It is active and restless. We have to be careful to distinguish between life and consciousness! They are not concomitant! A virus is alive but not be conscious. Prakrti is singular and is purposeful (Teleological.) It is the cause of the physical universe as well as forming the gross and subtle bodies of individuals. It strives to serve / please Purusa. Its very existence is for the enjoyment of souls. It seduces the soul by its charms! It is the source of everything material. It is the cause of all objective existence but is itself uncaused. It is also nature and represents potentiality due to its tripartite Gunas. It is the object of Purusa’s perception. It reacts to the wants of Purusa! It is always changing; reminiscent of Heraclitus who famously said that ‘All is flux.’ Heraclitus lived in the 5th century BCE, perhaps not too far removed from the age of Sankhya! Prakrti can be manifest (व्यक्त) or unmanifest (अव्यक्त / मूलप्रकृति / प्रधान.) Unmanifest Prakrti along with Purusa are among the 25 principles or Tattvas (तत्त्वs.)
Gunas (गुणाः): Manifest Prakrti comes in 3 flavors. Sattva (सत्त्व) is existence, essential matter, characterized by light and intelligence. Rajas (रजस्) is energy or activity, passion being its hallmark. Tamas (तमस्) is inactivity or indolence, sloth and darkness are its characteristics. The concept of Gunas appears to be an original contribution of Sankhya to Indian Philosophy. The Gunas always occur together and in varying proportions, yet they are not themselves substances.
The Souls & Jeevas: The souls are infinite in number and each is distinct. Purusa and the soul may be regarded as being synonyms in Sankhya. But again it is a non-doer without passion. It is unchanging and it is not the Elan Vital of life. Prakrti binds to Purusa to make the Jeeva. The Jeeva is an embodied soul. This body can be gross or subtle. The subtle body transmigrates.
Evolution: Prakrti and Purusa are two complementary and mutually separate entities. One is active while the other is not. The other is conscious but the former is not. When the two come together creation is possible. This is called Parinama or transformation. When the 3 Gunas are in equipoise or well proportioned, there is no disturbance and occurs no change. Change results as a disturbance from this ideal state of equilibrium. Matter is always conserved. Creation and destruction are mere manifestation and involution. When in the presence of Purusa, the equilibrium among the Gunas of Prakrti is disturbed and Prakrti undergoes Vikrti or transformation. The law of causality is a curious one in Sankhya philosophy. The effect is ever present in the cause. The cause is regarded as a substance with the effect present in latent form. This is termed Sat-karya-vada. Considering the example of a clay pot, Sakhya holds that pot-ness is always present in the clay. The potter simply causes the effect to become apparent. He only makes manifest the pot-ness present in clay! A potter cannot make bread out of clay as bread-ness is not in clay. This idea suggests that the Sankhyans were aware of the concept of properties of matter such as: malleability, ductility, cohesion, adhesion etc. It is the cohesive property of clay that makes a pot! In Sankhya creation, nothing new emerges as the action is already present as a cause or potentiality. Creation takes place because of Purusa’s interest in Prakrti and when Purusa withdraws, creation retracts back into an unmanifest state. Sankhya is a non-theistic, dualist and deterministic philosophy. It is to be noted the dual encountered here is different from the duals spoken of in the Bhagavadgita. There it is about polar opposites – likes and dislikes etc.
Bhagavadgita Weighs in: The Bhagavadgita takes up the subject of Prakrti and Purusa in Chapter 13 with these Verses:
प्रकृतिं पुरुषं चैव विद्ध्यनादी उभावपि।
विकारांश्च गुणांश्चैव विद्धि प्रकृतिसम्भवात्॥१९॥
कार्यकारणकर्तृत्वे हेतुः प्रकृतिरुच्यते।
पुरुषः सुखदुःखानां भोक्तृत्वे हेतुरुच्यते॥२०॥
पुरुषः प्रकृतिस्थो हि भुङ्क्ते प्रकृतिजान्गुणान्।
कारणं गुणसङ्गोऽस्य सदसद्योनिजन्मसु॥२१॥
Translated freely, it says: Prakrti and Purusa are both beginningless. All transformations are the result of Gunas of Prakrti. While Prakrti is the cause of actions, the Purusa is the enjoyer of happiness and sorrow only in contact with Prakrti. Association with Gunas is responsible for the soul to be born in good or evil wombs. This appears to be generally consistent with the teachings of Sankhya. In chapter 3 we see:प्रकृतेः क्रियमाणानि गुणैः कर्माणि सर्वशः।
अहङ्कारविमूढात्मा कर्ताहमिति मन्यते॥२७॥
प्रकृतेः गुणसम्मूढाः सज्जन्ते गुणकर्मसु।
तानकृत्स्नविदो मन्दान्कृत्स्नविन्न विचालयेत् ॥२९॥
The gist of the above is: all actions are carried out by the Gunas of Prakrti. The fool deluded by ego thinks of himself as the doer and stays attached to the Gunas and works. Those deluded by Gunas stay attached to Gunas and actions. Sankhya Ontology: Purusa and Prakrti stand at the apex of Sankhyan Ontology. Creation arises from these two principles coming together. Purusa is bewitched by Prakrti and Prakrti is only too eager to oblige by displaying her charms. The 1st product of creation is Mahat. Mahat is the highest principle; it is the intellect or Buddhi. From Mahat, arises Ego (Ahamkara) and then the mind (Manas.) Subsequently the 5 sense organs (Jnanendriyas,) 5 organs of action (Karmendriyas,) 5 objects of the senses (Tanmatras) and 5 gross elements (Pancabhutas) are created. This is creation. In dissolution, the process is reversed. We have accounted for 23 Tattvas here. The other two are Purusa and Avyakta, together forming the 25 Tattvas. It is this enumeration that earned the appellation Sankhya for this philosophical system. Sankhya Epistemology: Sankhya system allows for only 3 sources of valid knowledge – perception (Pratyaksa,) inference (Anumana) and veridical testimony (Shabda.) See the article by Dr. Chandrasekharan Raman on Pramanas in the Paramartha Tattvam – Dec. 2011 for details on Pramana. In Sankhya, direct perception is the most important and fundamental source of all knowledge. It is veridical. The sense organs feed the mind witch in turn creates a representation of the objects of perception. The mind feeds this representation to the intellect which converts the representation into knowledge of the object. The intellect feeds this knowledge to the ego which personalizes it and ultimately feeds it to the self – Saksi or Purusa to create conscious awareness of the sensed object. When senses cannot directly perceive due to their limitations, inference is needed such as in philosophical disputations. The very existence of Purusa is possible only through inference. Testimony (Vedas) does not appear to play an important role but it is used as a last resort when neither perception nor inference will do. It is not clear exactly where the Vedas are invoked. Perhaps, the ideas of Karma and transmigration are derived from the Vedas. Release: Like in Buddhism, the chief concern in Sankhya is human suffering. Although temporary relief from suffering may be had from sense pleasures, Vedic sacrifices, etc. permanent release is possible only when the soul detaches itself from Prakrti. Prakrti tempts Purusa causing bondage. When Purusa is no longer beguiled by Prakrti, it realizes that the Purusa (soul) is not attracted to it and releases its grip over the soul. This state of release is called Kaivalya or a state of isolation from Prakrti. However in Sankhya there is no merging with the One Purusa. They are fundamentally many. Impact of Sankhya on later Philosophical Systems: The main Sankhyan contributions to Indian Philosophy appear to be the 25 Tattvas and the 3 Gunas. As a speculative system, that undoubtedly had a big impact on the use of reasoning, rather than dogma, to arrive at an understanding of the cosmos, nature and the individual. The Pramanas considered by Sankhya were later augmented by other systems; not necessarily all. Sankhya explicitly states that the existence of a creator God as being unproven. Sankhya also hints at primordial ignorance as a cause of bondage. Sankhya philosophy appears to be a work in progress as there are a number of loose ends that are not nicely tied up into a whole. This may be a tall order for any philosophy! Sankhya has thus left a mark on later philosophies.॥सर्वं श्रीकृष्णार्पणमस्तु॥
